Psusennes I: The Silver Pharaoh of Egypt’s 21st Dynasty
Psusennes I was king of Egypt between Tanis and the third intermediate period and he is most associated with his lavishly decorated tomb complete with a solid silver coffin, rare at that time. Although he reigned in an era of political fracture, he ensured that there was stability in Lower Egypt as Thebes was run by influential priests. His intact burial is often compared to that of Tutankhamun for its remarkable treasures. Psusennes I remains one of the most important kings of the 21st Dynasty.
He was a third pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty and reigned in Tanis Iron Age IB, c. 1047-998 BC. Psusennes I is amongst the most interesting pharaohs of the Third Intermediate Period in ancient Egypt. Although his name is not as well known as the names of Tutankhamun or Ramesses II, his legacy is also unbelievable due to the unbelievable finding of his tomb.
Golden Mask of Psusennes I
Psusennes I Name
Psusennes is the Greek version of his original name Pasibkhanu or Pasebakhaenniut, which means “The Star Appearing in the City”. His throne name, Akheperre Setepenamun, translates as “Great are the Manifestations of Ra, chosen of Amun.”
Historical Context: Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period
The Third Intermediate Period followed the decline of the New Kingdom and was characterized by political fragmentation. The power of centralized government began to decline after Ramesses XI died which allowed various regions to develop their own governing authorities.
The northern Egyptian rulers established their capital city at Tanis. The High Priests of Amun established Thebes as the primary religious center in southern Egypt. The governing system created two separate authorities which operated as a dual power structure.
He belonged to the Tanite line of kings who ruled Lower Egypt. The rulers maintained peaceful relations with the Theban priests by establishing family connections and making political agreements instead of fighting throughout their entire reign. The people of Egypt maintained their cultural unity until the time of division which split their political authority.
Psusennes I Family
Psusennes I was the son of Pinedjem I and Duathathor-Henuttawy, Ramesses XI’s daughter by Tentamun. Thus, he was the maternal grandson of Ramesses XI of the 20th Dynasty through his mother.
Menkheperre was the brother of Psusennes I, High Priest of Thebes. Mutnedjmet was the sister of Psusennes I and became his wife.
Psusennes I married his sister Mutnedjmet. Psusennes I married Wiay. Only two of Psusennes I’s children remain identifiable.
- Amenemope may be the son of Psusennes I and born to Mutnedjmet. He became the successor of Psusennes I.
- Ankhefenmut C was the son of Psusennes I and was born to Mutnedjmet. He was buried in the tomb of his father, but his name and titles had been erased indicating he fell from grace.
- Isetemkheb C was the daughter of Psusennes I and Wiay. She married Menkheperre and became the First Chief of the Harem of Amun-Ra.
- Henuttawy was the daughter of Psusennes I.
Princess Henuttawy
The Reign of Psusennes I
Reign length
The reign length of Psusennes I is not certain. Different copies of Manetho’s records credit him with a reign of either 41 or 46 years.
Some Egyptologists have proposed raising the 41-year figure by a decade to 51 years to more closely match certain anonymous Year 48 and Year 49 dates in Upper Egypt. In 1992, the German Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln suggested that all these dates should be attributed to the serving High Priest of Amun, Menkheperre instead who is explicitly documented in a Year 48 record.
Jansen-Winkeln notes that “in the first half of Dyn. 21, the HP Herihor, Pinedjem I and Menkheperre have royal attributes and royal titles to differing extents” whereas the first three Tanite kings (Smendes, Amenemnisu and Psusennes I) are rarely referred to by name in Upper Egypt except one graffito and rock stela for Smendes.
The names of Psusennes I’s Twenty-first Dynasty successors through Amenemope and Osorkon the Elder and Siamun to include these names which appear in multiple Upper Egyptian documents. The Theban High Priest Pinedjem II who lived during the same time period as the three kings never adopted any royal attributes or titles in his career.
The reign of Psusennes I lasted for several decades, making him one of the longest-ruling kings of the 21st Dynasty. His rule is generally considered stable, especially given the divided political landscape.
He managed all Lower Egyptian administrative activities through his Tanis capital, which served as his main base. He maintained his traditional pharaoh role by protecting Ma’at, which represents the principle of order and balance.
Although he did not directly control Upper Egypt, his relationship with the Theban priesthood ensured a level of cooperation. This balance allowed Egypt to avoid large-scale internal conflict during his reign. Psusennes I’s ability to govern effectively under these conditions demonstrates his political skill and adaptability.
Architecture During the Reign of Psusennes I
He is best known for a major feat of engineering, moving the city of Pi-Ramesse to Zaon (Tanis). During the LBA/IA transition (3.2 ka event, Collapse of the LBA; early 20th dynasty) and Iron IA/IB transition (late 20th Dynasty), the city of Pi-Ramesses on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile suffered from climate change as the river had been subject to drought and silted up.
This made river transport to the city difficult. At the height of Iron Age IB, Psusennes I thus moved Pi-Ramesses to his new capital at Zaon (Tanis), located on the Tanitic branch of the Nile.
New Capital Zaon (Tanis): The Northern Capital
Tanis City
Tanis served as the political center of Psusennes I’s rule. Located in the Nile Delta, it was strategically positioned for trade and communication with the Mediterranean world.
The city was built using materials taken from earlier monuments, including those from Pi-Ramesses, the former capital of Ramesses II.The reuse of materials from earlier structures served as a building practice during the Third Intermediate Period.
Psusennes I transformed Tanis into a successful urban center which featured temples and administrative buildings and royal residences. The temple complex dedicated to Amun played a central role in the city’s religious life.
The archaeological discoveries at Tanis during this time period which include royal tombs show how important the city was during that historical time frame.
Great Temple of Amun
At Tanis, Psusennes I built the enclosure walls and the central part of the Great Temple at Tanis which was dedicated to the triad of Amun, Mut and Khonsu. The temple was completed by Siamun.
Psusennes was ostensibly the ruler responsible for turning Tanis into a fully-fledged capital city, surrounding its temple with a formidable brick temenos wall with its sanctuary dedicated to Amun being composed of blocks salvaged from the derelict Pi-Ramesses. Many of these blocks were unaltered and kept the name of Pi-Ramesses’ builder, Ramesses II, including obelisks still bearing the name of Ramesses II transported from the former capital of Pi-Ramesses to Tanis.
The Silver Coffin and Royal Mask
Silver Coffin of Psusennes I
The most famous object from the tomb of Psusennes I is his solid silver coffin. This artifact is unique in ancient Egyptian archaeology, as silver was rarer and more valuable than gold in Egypt.
The coffin was crafted with great skill and reflects the importance of the king. Inside it, the mummy was adorned with a gold funerary mask, which rivals that of Tutankhamun in quality and craftsmanship.
The combination of silver and gold in the burial emphasizes both wealth and symbolic meaning. Gold was associated with the gods and eternity, while silver was linked to the moon and purity. These treasures highlight the continued sophistication of Egyptian art and culture during the Third Intermediate Period.
Psusennes I Tomb
Pierre Montet in 1940 found the Tomb of Psusennes I (NRT III) in Tanis intact. Most of the perishable wood objects were lost due to their wet Lower Egyptian location, a fate not met by KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun in the drier climate of Upper Egypt. In contrast to KV62, Psusennes I’s tomb holds the distinction of being the only pharaonic grave ever found unscathed by any tomb-robbing attempts. The tomb of Tutankhamun had been robbed twice in antiquity.
Sarcophagus of Psusennes I
It has a maximum width and height of 38 cm and 48 cm respectively. The pharaoh’s “fingers and toes had been encased in gold stalls, and he was buried with gold sandals on his feet. The finger stalls are the most elaborate ever found, with sculpted fingernails. Each finger wore an elaborate ring of gold and lapis lazuli or some other semiprecious stone.”
Psusennes I’s outer and middle sarcophagi had been recycled from previous burials in the Valley of the Kings through the state-sanctioned tomb robbing that was common practice in the Third Intermediate Period. A cartouche on the red outer sarcophagus shows that it had originally been made for Pharaoh Merenptah, the 19th Dynasty successor of Ramesses II, as the middle sarcophagus. Psusennes I, himself, was interred in an “inner silver coffin” which was inlaid with gold. Since “silver was considerably rarer in Egypt than gold,” Psusennes I’s silver coffin represents a sumptuous burial of great wealth during Egypt’s declining years.”
Psusennes’s tomb, discovered in February 1940 by the French Egyptologist Pierre Montet, is notable for the condition in which it was found. All previously found pharaonic tombs had been graverobbed, including the tomb of Tutankhamun, and Psusennes’s tomb was the only ancient Egyptian royal tomb discovered in fully intact condition. However, the humid climate of Lower Egypt caused only the metal objects to survive. Pharaoh Amenemope and General Wendjebauendjed were also buried within Psusennes I’s NRT III Tanis tomb while Pharaoh Shoshenq II and two anonymous royal individuals (possibly Siamun and Psusennes II) were reburied in Psusennes I’s tomb after their original tombs became inundated with water.
Legacy of Psusennes I
Psusennes I left a lasting legacy as one of the most important kings of the 21st Dynasty. His reign demonstrates how Egypt adapted to political division while maintaining cultural continuity. Under his rule, Lower Egypt was a stable and prosperous place.
The finding of his tomb has also contributed significantly to the present-day knowledge of the Third Intermediate Period. His burial reveals that it was not a period of decline but a period of further artistic and cultural success.
Conclusion
Psusennes I stands as a remarkable figure in ancient Egyptian history. Ruling during a time of division, he successfully maintained stability and authority in Lower Egypt.
