Ancient Egyptian Law: Justice, Order, and Ma’at
When we refer to ancient Egypt, what we tend to think about is pyramids, pharaohs and hieroglyphics. However, in addition to architecture and art, Egypt came up with one of the oldest and most powerful systems of law. Ancient Egyptian Law was not a collection of written regulations but a lifestyle, which was closely connected with religion, morality, and social order. In contrast to the present-day legal systems, it was grounded less on a written law and more on a guiding principle: ma’at, the concept of truth, harmony, and balance.
Ancient Egyptian Law
This article explores the nature of law in ancient Egypt by providing answers to such questions as: Who created the laws in Ancient Egypt? What is the list of laws in ancient Egypt? What do we get to know about the 10 Laws of Ancient Egypt? On our way, we will also learn how the law influenced everyday life, both regarding property conflicts and the actions towards criminals.
The Foundation of Ancient Egyptian Law: Ma’at
Maat
Maat, which is an idea of veracity, equilibrium and order in the universe, was at the centre of Egyptian justice. Egyptians were convinced that in order to make society go on smoothly, humans needed to live by ma’at. This implied being just, truthful and considerate of divine order. Maat was not only a religious concept but also the pillar of government, politics, and the legal system.
Egypt did not have the use of set law texts, as was the case in Mesopotamia or Greece, where laws were written into codes. Rather, judges and officials were supposed to use ma’ath on the situation. This gave it flexibility, but also resulted in the fact that results might be subjective. Nevertheless, this system had impressive stability and order for more than three thousand years.
Who Made the Laws in Ancient Egypt?
The question Who made the laws in Ancient Egypt? is one of the most widespread. The solution is easy: the pharaoh. The pharaoh was the supreme source of religion and law since he was the emissary of the gods on earth. Egyptians considered that he reigned under the divine direction, and he was expected to enforce ma’at in every issue.
Although the pharaoh was the lawgiver, he hardly dealt with common disputes. He instead left the power to his closest advisor, the vizier. The vizier was a prime minister and a chief justice in one. He presided over the courts, nominated the judges and ensured that legal cases were dealt with justly. Judges and local officials, in their turn, applied the principles of maath to real cases, i.e. the disputes over land, trade, inheritance and crimes.
This hierarchy of leadership, whereby the pharaoh led, then the vizier and then the local courts, made sure that the law was not only the will of god, but also convenient to the commoners.
The Courts of Ancient Egypt
There were no courts of law that were used to apply the law in ancient Egypt; there were various levels of law that applied:
- Local Councils (Seru): Village elders who dealt with minor conflicts and mediated.
- Kenbet Courts: This was the court that handled property, inheritance and criminal matters in the regions. They had officials and respected community members staffing them.
- The Court of the Vizier (Djadjat): The court of last resort, as the vizier himself had to hear significant cases.
Decision-making was typically done by a panel of individuals as opposed to individual judges, thus minimizing bias. Nevertheless, when a verdict was passed, that was it. No fainting was further than the court of the vizier.
Legal Procedures and Rights
Police in Ancient Egypt
During trials in law courts, the accuser was not required to prove anything but the accused. An individual was usually deemed guilty before he or she was found not guilty. Testimony of a witness was very important, and false testimony would be highly punishable. As an illustration, an individual who was found lying in court might have to be beaten up publicly or even mutilated.
The lawyers were not modern. Instead, individuals represented themselves but in some cases, scribes and officials assisted in preparing papers. Amazingly, women were far enjoying major legal rights. They were allowed to own property, divorce their husbands and take their cases to court. As a matter of fact, divorce settlements and property transfers of women in Egypt are some of the most preserved legal works in the country.
The List of Laws in Ancient Egypt
There was no single carved list of laws made in ancient Egypt as in Mesopotamia in the Hammurabi Code. Rather, the principles were transmitted by tradition, royal decrees and by court decisions. Despite this, historians have been able to compile a rough list of the laws in ancient Egypt based on records, documents and court cases:
- Admiration of property and land ownership.
- Family rights protection, such as inheritance.
- Strauss trade and just weights in markets.
- Appreciation of contracts and agreements.
- Theft, robbery and fraud should be punished.
- Strict punishment for murder and violence.
- Water rights and irrigation control.
- Guarding tombs and sacred places.
- Marriage, respect and adultery punishment.
- Maintaining the truth and punishing false testimony.
These are not only laws but values. Egyptians were convinced that the preservation of these principles ensured the safety of society and the cosmos.
The 10 Laws of Ancient Egypt Explained
Modern writers often summarize Egyptian justice into the 10 Laws of Ancient Egypt, a simplified way of showing how ma’at worked in daily life:
- Do not steal – Theft disrupted both social trust and divine harmony.
- Do not kill – Murder was seen as an attack on the gods’ creation.
- Respect your parents – Family was the core of stability.
- Do not bear false witness – Truthfulness was sacred in maintaining ma’at.
- Honor the gods – Religion and law were inseparable.
- Do not commit adultery – Adultery threatened family stability.
- Respect property – Land and goods were central to livelihood.
- Fulfill your contracts – Breaking agreements was against order and justice.
- Protect the weak – Social harmony requires care for vulnerable members.
- Live with honesty – Everyday conduct reflected on cosmic balance.
These principles were more moral guidelines than written codes, but they shaped how courts and officials judged cases.
Crime and Punishment
Punishments in Egypt were often severe, designed to maintain order and deter wrongdoing. Some examples included:
- Fines for minor disputes or damages.
- Beatings or whippings for disorderly behaviour.
- Mutilation (like cutting off a hand) for theft.
- Exile for serious offenders.
- Death for crimes like murder, treason, or tomb robbery.
Theft from tombs was especially serious, since it was not only a crime against property but also a violation of the afterlife. Criminals caught robbing graves could be executed or burned, a punishment that denied them eternal life.
Still, the law allowed flexibility. Judges considered the circumstances, the status of the accused, and the impact on the community before delivering a verdict.
Women and the Law in Ancient Egypt
The position of women in the law is one of the notable contrasts between Egyptian law and the law in many other ancient societies. Egyptian women could:
- Own, buy, and sell property.
- Inherit land and goods.
- Personal representation in court.
- Divorce and sue to be compensated.
This provided them with much greater freedom than women in Greece or Rome in where women were generally subject to male protection. Legal papyri demonstrate that women prevailed in court over men, and this is an indication that Egypt revered the rights of women.
Law and the Afterlife
The Egyptian law was not merely concerned with life on earth. Maat was an extension of the afterlife. The Egyptians happened to believe that the soul of every individual would be judged in the hall of Maat after death. The heart was made equal to the feather of truth. The soul had gone to the eternal paradise in case the heart was lighter. When it was swallowed by Ammit, the judgment monster.
This ideology made Egyptians adhere to ma’at not just so as to escape punishment in this world but also to get a blessed afterlife. Religion was inseparable from law.
Corruption and Decline of the Legal System
Even though the Egyptian law was effective over the centuries, it increased corruption in the later stages. Bribes were accepted by the officials, abuse of power by the police and false testimony were the order of the day. Also in the New Kingdom and late period, the judges were punished due to dishonesty.
The legal system of Egypt was also failing, as Egypt was becoming weak politically. Egyptian traditions were combined with foreign systems under the Greek and Roman rule and, as a result, the pure Egyptian law was finally destroyed. Nevertheless, its heritage also affected subsequent civilization by its focus on justice, truth, and balance of the cosmos.
Ancient Egyptian Law Compared to Other Legal Systems
The system was more adaptable and less written down in comparison to the written codes of Mesopotamia or the elaborate laws of Rome. It was always concerned with the principles of justice and not the technical rules. This allowed judges some freedom as well as provided a possibility of bias. Nevertheless, the uniformity of maat provided Egyptian people with a moral compass, which endured thousands of years.
Conclusion
Ancient Egyptian Law was not a set of rules but rather a moral and spiritual one. Based on ma’at, it influenced both everyday life and the postmortem world. The pharaoh was the center of power, and common citizens were engaged in a court system of resolving disputes, contracts and crimes. Ancient Egypt and the 10 Laws of Ancient Egypt list of laws demonstrate that the society was very devoted to the ideas of justice, order, and truth.
Although there is no extant code of written law, the ideas of Egyptian law are alive today. The legacy it has left to us is to remember that justice is not just about punishment but it is the establishment of harmony, fairness, and balance in society.
